Javan rhino

Name and subspecies

▪   Common name: Javan rhino

▪   Synonym: Lesser one-horned rhino

▪   Scientific name: Rhinoceros sondaicus; from the Greek “rhino”, meaning "nose" and “ceros” meaning "horn". Sondaicus derives from "Sunda," the name for the western part of Java, but the word is also used to indicate the main chain of Indonesian islands, the “Sunda islands”

▪   Subspecies:

Physical characteristics

Size: The Javan rhino is a smaller and lighter relative of the greater one-horned rhino. It stands at 1.4 to 1.7 metres tall at the shoulder. There is not much difference in size between the males and females, and from information gathered in Ujung Kulon and from museum skeletons, there is a possibility that females are slightly bigger.Weight: Javan rhinos are comparable in size to the African black rhino, though only a few animals have actually been weighed. They typically range between 900 and 2,300 kg.Lifespan: Javan rhinos are estimated to live an average of 35 to 40 years in the wild.Skin colour: Javan rhinos have grey or grey-brown skin, almost black when wet, with pink colouring in the folds.The horn: Javan rhinos have a single horn, grey or brownish in colour, usually less than 20 cm long. Males have larger horns and many females, especially in Ujung Kulon, have no horn or just have a small knob on the nose. The longest horn ever recorded is only about 27 cm long and is now in the British Museum in London. Rhino horn has the same horn structure as the hooves of horses and re-grows if broken off. It is not used for fighting, but for scraping mud from the sides of wallows, pulling down food plants, and for protection of the head and nose when breaking through dense vegetationTeeth: Like all Asian rhinos, Javan rhinos have long, sharp, dagger-shaped lower incisor teeth. These are used in fighting and can inflict deep wounds. Javan rhinos also have two rows of 6 strong, braod and low-crowned molars on each side. The ridges of enamel on these teeth are used to cut up the woody parts of their food into characteristic 1-2cm long pieces. Over the years the teeth wear down by several centimetres to become shallow and dish-like, and making it difficult for older rhinos to break down their food.Senses: Javan rhinos have a good sense of smelling and hear very well, but are rather short sighted. Attacks on humans are not uncommon when the Javan rhino is met in the forest.Distinctive characteristics: Javan rhinos have long pointed upper lip, which assists in grasping their food. Such prehensile lips are found in all browsing rhino species: the African black rhino, and the greater one-horned and Sumatran rhinos. As for the other Asian rhinos, there are two folds in the skin circling the body behind the front legs and before the hind legs, and horizontal folds at the base of the legs. The neck folds are less massive than in the greater one-horned rhino, but two folds continue over the back of the neck, forming a characteristic “saddle” on the neck-shoulder. The skin is covered with a mosaic pattern, giving a scale-like appearance.

 

Social behaviour and breeding

Sociability: Javan rhinos are usually solitary, except for females with small calves, or during courtship. Occasionally young animals may form pairs or small groups for some time.Male territory: Males in Ujung Kulon have larger territories (12-20 km2), only marginally overlapping with other males territories. There is no indication that these territories are actually defended by territorial fights as happens in other rhino species, but they are marked along the main trails by urine, faeces, scrapes and twisted saplings.Female territory: The ranges of the females in Ujung Kulon are much smaller (3-14 km2) and overlap each other considerably.Mating and courtship: There is a short period of courtship around the time when a female is in oestrus and this is generally the only time adult males and adult female socialise.Scent marking: Dung heaps serve as a communication point, though the large latrines common in the greater one-horned rhino do not occur, probably because of the much lower natural density of these animals. Unlike Sumatran rhinos, Javan rhinos do not scratch their hind feet in the dung and kick it around in the bushes. They drag a hind foot, sometimes for several metres, to mark the scratch with the secretions of the foot glands. The visual marks made by the Sumatran rhinos in the form of twisted saplings are also unknown in Javan rhinosSounds and calls: Javan rhinos are not very vocal, much less than Sumatran rhinos, and only few vocalisations have been recorded. As with other rhino species, indirect communication through dung, urine and scrapes scented with the secretions of the foot glands play a more prominent roleGestation period: The gestation period is estimated to be between 16 and 19 months, however Javan rhinos have never been born in captivity so the exact length of time is unknown.

Location and habitat

Current range: The Javan rhino exists in a single population in Ujung Kulon peninsular, western Java, Indonesia. Here the rhino population has recovered quite well from fewer than 30 individuals in 1967 to between 50 and 60 in 1980. Since then the population has been stagnant or even slowly declining. The 2012 estimate is between 37 and 44 animals.Historical range: Javan rhinos were once rather common over a large part of Southeast Asia, from near Calcutta in India, throughout Bangladesh, southern China, Laos, Vietnam Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, the Large island of Sumatra, and the western half of Java. About 12,000 years ago they also occurred in Borneo and till about 2,000 years ago through large parts of ChinaHabitat: Javan rhinos used to live in a variety of tropical landscapes, both lowland and highland, from the mangroves of the Sunderbans in India and Bangladesh, the mountains of southern China, to the sub-montane shrubs on the highest volcanoes of Java. The Javan rhino probably had a wider ecological range than either its larger relative, the greater one-horned rhino, or its compatriot, the Sumatran rhino.Diet: The Javan rhino's diet is characterized by high species diversity. Hundreds of food plant species have been recorded, but about 40% of the quantity of food eaten comes from a few preferred and common plant species. The rhinos eat mostly leaves, young shoots and twigs. Most of the plants eaten by rhinos grow in unshaded locations, in vegetation without tall trees, gaps created by fallen trees, and shrubland without trees. These unshaded places have a better average quality of food plants. Javan rhinos rarely feed in vegetation types where the quantity of available food is low.Forest: In spite of their preference for feeding in vegetation types without tall trees, Javan rhinos are probably dependent upon the occurrence of forest in their environment. Forest provides protection against solar radiation, water supply is subject to smaller fluctuations inside forest than outside, and forest trees are the source of many saplings eaten by rhinos. The optimal habitat of the Javan rhino, with regard to vegetation types, therefore appears to be a mosaic of glades interspersed with patches of forest. This kind of habitat is widely distributed in Ujung Kulon.Mud wallows: Javan rhinos spend up a large part of the day wallowing in mud holes. They may use temporary pools and puddles, which they deepen with the feet and horn. The access to mud wallows is essential for thermo-regulation, skin condition and to get rid of ectoparasites (parasites that live on the surface of their host) and biting insects.Salt licks: Salt licks, which are so dominant in the ecology of the Sumatran rhino, are unknown in Ujung Kulon, but occasionally Javan rhinos are known to drink seawater. It is likely that in other parts of the former range salt licks were also used by Javan rhinos
.

Under threat

Small population size: The biggest threat to the Javan rhino is the very small size of the remaining populations. This leads to inbreeding and loss of genetic variability and vitality. The two habitats where Javan rhinos occur are secure, but much too small for long-term survival of the species.Poaching: Javan rhinos are poached for their horn, which is used in Asia as a medicine against fever and pain. A Javan rhino in Vietnam was found poached with its horns removed in April 2010. Later DNA research on dung samples indicated that this was the last rhino remaining in that population.Habitat loss: Apart from poaching, habitat destruction and loss for agriculture and development are further threats to the rhino populations. Though officially all rhino habitats are strictly protected by legislation, in practice many areas are subject to large-scale encroachment by poor and landless communities, and the park management usually does not have the means and the political support to counter this pillage. Habitat is still not a limiting factor overall, but neither of the two remaining habitats are large enough to allow significant growth of the rhino population, now or in the future. Re-establishment of Javan rhinos in areas where they have been exterminated and rejuvenation of their habitat in these areas are vital components of the conservation strategy for this species.

Other interesting facts

Vietnam: The Javan rhino was confirmed extinct from the Cat Loc part of the Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam in October 2011. The last few Javan rhinos in Vietnam were very small, no more than 1.2 metres at the shoulder, and probably of similar weight to a Sumatran rhino, less than 800 kg.Population decline: The Javan rhino showed the most dramatic decline of all three Asian rhino species, and by about 1930 the Javan rhinos was restricted to Ujung Kulon, a small peninsula on the westernmost tip of Java and a few small isolated populations in Vietnam and possible Laos and Cambodia.It’s a mystery: By the time the first naturalists ventured into the Southeast Asian forests, the Javan rhino was already very rare, and not much is known about its behaviour and ecology outside the single remaining viable population, which may not even be located in ideal or typical habitat.Future possibilities: With continued strict protection, both of the remaining rhinos and their habitat, and with active translocation and establishment of new populations in suitable and secure habitats, over the next 150 years the populations ought eventually to be able to recover to at least 2,000-2,500 individuals; the number determined by population biologists as a minimum requirement for long-term survival of the species.Digestion: All rhinos are hind-gut fermenters (they use micro organisms in the last part of the intestine to break down indigestible parts of the food) and have a large cavernous caecum and colon.Zoos: Very few Javan rhinos have ever been exhibited in zoos, and the last one died in Adelaide Zoo, Australia, in 1907. During its life it was exhibited as a greater one-horned rhino!

Binturong

Binturong Classification and Evolution
The Binturong is a medium sized carnivore that is found inhabiting the dense forests of South-East Asia. They belong to the same family as other small carnivores including Civets, Genets, Mongooses and Fossa and share a number of characteristics with them including a long snout and having more teeth than most other carnivorous mammals. The Binturong is thought to be most closely related to the Palm Civet and is the largest member of this family. Also known as the Bearcat, the Asian Bearcat and the Asian Civet, the Binturong was once commonly found throughout much of it's historical range but sadly, today they are a rare find in the thick jungles and very little is actually known about their behaviour in the wild. There are nine different subspecies of Binturong which vary little in appearance but tend to be most easily distinguished by their size and geographic location.

Binturong Anatomy and Appearance
The Binturong is a large, heavy animal that can grow to more than a meter long from their snout to the tip of their tail, with females being up to 20% bigger and heavier than their male counterparts. They have very long, coarse and shaggy fur which varies from dark brown to black in colour and is tipped with grey, along with tufts of long and dark straight hair which protrude beyond the tops of their ears. The Binturong (along with the Kinkajou of South America) is also unique among carnivorous mammals as they possess a prehensile tip to their tails, which acts almost like another leg helping both with climbing, and gripping onto branches to give the Binturong more stability. The Binturong also has long, white whiskers that are thick and sensitive and are found both on their checks and above their brown eyes.

Binturong Distribution and Habitat
The Binturong was once natively found throughout China, India, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and on the island of Borneo, and although there are populations still found in a number of these countries, their numbers have been declining and the Binturong can now be extraordinarily hard to spot. Found in dense, moist jungles and in areas that are close to a slow-moving water source, the Binturong has been most affected by habitat loss particularly in the more southern parts of it's natural range. Towards the north however where the rate of deforestation is not quite as ferocious, they have been more affected by hunting and capture as well as generally expanding Human populations. The Binturong relies heavily on dense, thick forest where there is plenty of cover both in the trees and on the ground and with a big decline in it's native jungles, this mammal simply has fewer places to go.

Binturong Behaviour and Lifestyle
The Binturong is a generally solitary and nocturnal animal that spends the majority of it's time moving about slowly and cautiously amongst the trees. Due to their large size the Binturong cannot leap between one tree and another and so must climb down to the ground to go from tree to tree. They are excellent climbers and are well aided by their strong feet, agile bodies, semi-retractable claws and their prehensile tail. The Binturong is also known to both swim and dive well and often spends time in the water to simply cool down in the heat of the sun. Although they do tend to be mainly solitary, small groups of Binturong are not uncommon and usually consist of an adult pair and their young. As with the hierarchy in Mongoose society however, it is the female Binturong who remains the dominant adult. The Binturong is known to be a very vocal animal and makes a number of sounds to both communicate with other Binturongs and to warn off species that it sees to be a threat. They are known to make chuckling sounds when they seem to be happy and appear to utter a high-pitched wail if they become aggravated.

Binturong Reproduction and Life Cycles
Although there is not thought to be a mating season as such, there are thought to be higher instances between February and April and then later in July and November. After a gestation period that lasts for around 3 months, the female Binturong climbs down to the ground to nest in thick vegetation that is sheltered both from the elements but is also out of sight of passing predators. Between 1 and 3 small cubs are born that measure about the size of a Human fist. Like a number of other mammalian young, BInturongs are born blind and cannot hear and rely solely on their mother to provide them with milk. They are usually weaned by the time they are 2 months old and reach their adult size after a year. The Binturong is thought to live for between 10 and 15 years in the wild but can happily reach older ages in captivity with one individual having died at the age of 26.

Binturong Diet and Prey
Despite belonging to the carnivorous mammal group, the Binturong is mainly frugivorous meaning that it survives primarily on a diet that is comprised of fruit. Although they are also known to hunt insects, birds and rodents which they stalk in a cat-like manner amongst the branches, the Binturong has evolved well to eating in the trees with front feet that are not only designed to climb and dig, but they can also hold onto fruit and even open it with their agile toes. The Binturong primarily hunts for food under the cover of night but is also known to feed whilst resting in the trees in the heat of the day. Due to their ability to swim and dive well, the Binturong also hunts fish in the water when cooling down in the heat of the day.

Binturong Predators and Threats
The Binturong is a relatively large and slow-moving animal, yet it is not really a main source of prey to the predators that also inhabit the dense, surrounding jungle. Larger animals such as Tigers and Snakes would pose the biggest threat to the Binturong adults, along with Birds of Prey and small carnivores that could easily target one of the young cubs. The biggest threat to the world's Binturong population though is people and in a number of ways. The Binturong has been caught for their meat, captured and sold into the pet trade, subjected to vast habitat loss (mainly in the form of deforestation), and is also trapped and caught to be sold into the Chinese medicine market, where a number of their body parts are used in traditional remedies.

Binturong Interesting Facts and Features
Like other members of the Civet family, the Binturong has scent glands which are located just under it's tail. These glands are used to mark trees and foliage to outline an individual's territory and is distributed whilst the Binturong is moving about. Oddly enough, the odour of this scent is said to smell like popcorn as are Binturong cubs when they are newborn. Until they became stronger and are more aware of their surroundings, young Binturong are incredibly vulnerable and are able to spray foul smelling liquid (like a Skunk) when they are really frightened. This is not a behaviour however that has been observed in individuals who are more than a couple of months old, because as they get bigger they are able to defend themselves more easily. When climbing, the Binturong is actually able to rotate it's hind legs backwards so that their claws still have a good grip when climbing down a tree head first.

Binturong Relationship with Humans
This tree-dwelling mammal is actually known to be startlingly passive towards people and has been easily domesticated and kept as an exotic pet all over the world. However, it is this industry that along with other factors, has aided in the rapid decline of Binturong population numbers throughout South-East Asia. Not only having been over-exploited as pets, zoo attractions, in medicines and for food, the Binturong is also subjected to devastating loss of vast areas of it's natural habitat which has pushed the remaining populations into smaller and smaller pockets of their once large historical range. Both growing Human settlements and forest clearance for agriculture are the main culprits and seeing as the Binturong needs dense jungle to successfully survive, plantations provide no sanctuary in their dwindling homelands.

Binturong Conservation Status and Life Today
Today, the Binturong is rarely seen in the wild with just a handful of sightings having been reported over the past decade. The Binturong is listed by the IUCN as a species that is Vulnerable from extinction in it's natural environment in the near future. Humanencroachment on their historical habitats has meant that numbers have declined drastically and along with their capture still in many parts, has led to a 30% decline in Binturong population numbers in the last 30 years.

Siamang Symphalangus syndactylus

TAXONOMY

Suborder: Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae
Genus: Symphalangus
Species: S. syndactylus
Subspecies: S. s. syndactylus, S. s. continentis

Other names: Hylobates (Symphalangus) syndactylus, siamang, greater gibbon; S. s. syndactylus: Sumatran siamang; S. s. continentis: Malaysian siamang.

The taxonomic arrangement of siamangs has been modified by Groves (2005) and Mootnick & Groves (2005) who elevated the former subgenus Symphalangus to full generic level where it was formerly a subgenus of Hylobates.

MORPHOLOGY

 
Photo: Roy Fontaine

Among the gibbons, the stocky siamangs are the largest (Mootnick 2006). The pelage is glossy black, the upper body has long hair and the chest is broad (Marshall & Sugardjito 1986; Mootnick 2006). The crown is flat and a white brow-band occurs at low levels (<5%) in captive and museum examples (Geissmann 1993; 2003). Perhaps the most characteristic feature of the siamang is its large inflatable throat sac, which is sparsely haired (Schultz 1933; Marshall & Sugardjito 1986; Mootnick 2006; A.Mootnick pers. comm.). When fully inflated, the throat sac is comparable in size to the animal's head (Papaioannou 1973). Siamangs have no tail, as is the case in all of the lesser, or small, apes(Ankel-Simons 2000). However, males possess a downward directed genital tassel which can be as long as 13.5 cm (5.3 in) and resembles a tail (Marshall & Sugardjito 1986; Mootnick 2006). It is difficult to visibly tell the subspecies apart, although preliminary observations suggest that this might be possible based on nose morphology (Mootnick 2006). The second and third toes are connected by webbing which is variable in its extent, a condition that is reflected in the species' scientific name (Schultz 1933; Marshall & Sugardjito 1986; Mootnick 2006). In addition, sometimes the fourth and fifth toes are also webbed (A. Mootnick & L. Theisen-Watt pers. obs. cited in Mootnick 2006).

There is some sexual dimorphism in siamangs, with males being somewhat larger than females (Wilson & Wilson 1976). In a small wild-shot sample, adult males averaged 11.9 kg (26.2 lb) and adult females averaged 10.7 kg (23.6 lb) (Geissmann 1993). In a much larger survey of captive individuals, adult males averaged 12.8 kg (28.2 lb) and adult females averaged 10.5 kg (23.1 lb) (Orgeldinger 1994). Head and body length ranges between 29 and 35 inches (73.7 and 88.9 cm) (Chivers 1985).

The predominant type of siamang locomotion is its characteristic brachiation, comprising around 80% of its movement (Chivers 1972b cited in Andrews & Groves 1976). This type of locomotion is extremely advantageous in the complex canopy environment for which the species is adapted (Bertram 2004). Other types of locomotion include vertical climbing, swinging, jumping and arboreal bipedal walking (Chivers 1972b cited in Andrews & Groves 1976; Papaioannou 1973). When compared to other gibbons, siamangs are slower in their movement and they rest by propping or draping themselves in the trees (Chivers 1972a).

In captivity, siamangs can live into their forties (Schmidt & Weigl 1999; Weigl 2005).

RANGE

CURRENT RANGE MAPS (IUCN REDLIST):
Symphalangus syndactylus

Siamangs are found on the island of Sumatra (Indonesia) and on the Malay (Malaysia and Thailand) peninsula (Treesucon 1997; Mootnick 2006). Each of the two locations has its own subspecies, with S. s. syndactylus being confined to Sumatra and S. s. continentis confined to the northwest and central Malay Peninsula (Mootnick 2006). Within the Malay peninsula, S. s. continentis is restricted in the east by the Pahang River, in the south by the Maur river and Tasek Bera, and in the north by the Perak river (Chivers 1980). There are no reports of occurrence east of the central range of the peninsula (Groves 1972). There is at least one report of siamangs from extreme southern Thailand, very near the border with Malaysia on the Malay peninsula in the Narathiwat Province (Treesucon 1997). On Sumatra, S. s. syndactylus occurs over most of the island but is mainly found in the west (MacKinnon 1984; Jenkins 1990).

HABITAT

The tropical hill forest is the primary habitat of the siamang. The species is most often found above 300 m (984.3 ft) in altitude, but can also live in lowland forests(Chivers 1977). In addition to primary lowland and hill forests, siamangs can also live in selectively logged primary freshwater swamp forests, selectively logged lowland forests, selectively logged hill forests and primary submontane forest (Wilson & Wilson 1976). Although sympatric with other gibbons in some habitats, siamangs occur more often at higher elevations than other gibbons (Wilson & Wilson 1976). However, the species is not commonly seen above 1500 m (4921.3 ft), although it may range as high as 1828.8 m (6000 ft) (Medway 1972; Caldecott 1980).

The seasons are not usually distinct in the tropical areas where the siamang lives (Chivers 1974). In southwestern Sumatra, in the Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, rainfall is only weakly seasonal. Annually, it can be between 300 and 400 cm (118.1 and 157.5 in), amounts which are sometimes lower due to severe droughts. At this site, annual temperatures are usually between 22 and 35°C (71.6 and 95°F) but can be as high as 40°C (104°F) (O'Brien et al. 2003; 2004). On the Malay Peninsula, there is a time of increased rainfall around the beginning of each year with a following drier season which is accompanied by warmer temperatures. However, this cycle is variable between years (Chivers 1974). At the study site of Kuala Lompat, in the Krau Game Reserve in the Malay Peninsula during a two-year period, temperatures varied between 16.1 and 33.3°C (61 and 92°F). The wet season lasted roughly November-January, and the dry season between January-April (Chivers 1974).

ECOLOGY

On average, among several study sites in both Malaysia and Indonesia, siamangs eat a variety of foods, including 49% fruit (between 32-61% of the diet), 38% leaves (17-58%), 3% flowers (1-9%), and 10% insects (1-21%) (Papaioannou 1973; Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1979; MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Palombit 1992; 1997; Bartlett 2007). Of the fruit, figs can make up a significant percentage, up to 37% of the entire siamang diet (Bartlett 2007). Siamangs also have a preference of leaf types, eating mostly young leaves and only small amounts of mature leaves (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1979; MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Palombit 1992). Overall, more than 160 different species of plant are eaten (T. O'Brien unpubl. data cited in O'Brien et al. 2003).

 
Photo: Alan Mootnick

The daily activity period is usually over ten hours long (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1979). In general, siamangs awake around dawn and communally defecate shortly thereafter (Papaioannou 1973; Chivers 1974; Chivers et al. 1975). They will then feed or rest, depending on their proximity to food resources (Chivers 1972a). As to the daily pattern of activity, peaks in feeding occur over the course of the morning and decrease after that for the rest of the day (Papaioannou 1973; Chivers 1977). Resting increases over the day to a peak in the afternoon, and travel peaks in the morning (Chivers 1974). At night, siamang groups enter the highest branches of a single tree, high above the canopy but sometimes lower and in several trees (Chivers 1974; Gittins & Raemaekers 1980). Sleeping trees are often reused (Chivers 1974).

Daily time budgets vary between study sites, but traveling, resting and feeding typically are predominant activities (Lappan 2005). In Sumatra, male siamangs spend their time feeding (34.0%), resting (36.8%), traveling (16.8%), in social activities (5.2%) and in other activities (7.3%). Female siamangs spend their time feeding (37.3%), resting (33.8%), traveling (16.9%), in social activities (5.4%) and in other activities (7.3%) (Lappan 2005). Elsewhere in Sumatra during a different study, siamangs spent their time resting (44%), feeding and foraging (40%), traveling (12%), in intergroup interactions (3%) and singing (1%) (Palombit 1992; 1997). On the Malay peninsula, the day is spent feeding (50%), resting (25%), and traveling (22%), with grooming, singing and play each taking up about 1% of the day (Gittins & Raemaekers 1980). Among the group, there is a coordination of activities. In one study, all members of a group participated in the same activity over 60-75% of the day (Chivers 1976).

Home ranges vary between 0.2 and 0.48 km² (0.08 and 0.19 mi²), with no or little overlap (Papaioannou 1973; Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1979; MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Raemaekers & Chivers 1980; Palombit 1996b; O'Brien et al. 2003). Average day ranges of siamang groups range between 640-1289 m (Chivers 1974; Raemaekers 1979; MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980; Lappan 2005; Bartlett 2007). During wet months, daily travel is shorter than in dry months (Raemaekers 1980). Siamangs spend most of their time high in the forest canopy, over 24 meters (78.7 ft) above the ground, but will also descend to around 7.5 meters (24.6 ft) above the ground and rarely lower (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1980). Arboreal group movements are usually in single-file through the same pathway (Chivers 1974).

Siamangs live in sympatry with a number of other primates including the slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), pigtail macaque (Macaca nemestrina), Thomas's langur (Presbytis thomasi), lar gibbon (Hylobates lar), agile gibbon (Hylobates agilis), banded langur (Presbytis melalophos), ebony langur (Trachypithecus auratus), Horsfield's tarsier (Tarsius bancanus), and Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii) (Palombit 1992; Lappan 2005). In addition, in northern Sumatra, siamangs are sympatric with orangutans and lar gibbons, the only place in the world where three species of non-human apes coexist (Palombit 1996b). The siamang and other gibbons with which it is sympatric might compete for food as in some cases there is diet overlap (Raemaekers 1984). This is the case with the sympatric lar gibbon where infrequent confrontations between siamangs and the species over food resources have been observed (Raemaekers 1978). In addition, in at least one study, a male siamang associated with a male lar gibbon and the pair traveled, fed, and even chorused together (MacKinnon & MacKinnon 1977).

In general, predation on gibbons is not well documented, and in no field study of either Hylobates sp. or Symphalangus syndactylus has direct predation been observed (see Uhde & Sommer 2002). However, a full-sized siamang was found in the digestive tract of a python (Schneider 1906 cited in Uhde & Sommer 2002).

BALI STARLING

STATUS
Critically Endangered

SIZE
Weight: 0.85kg
Length: 25cm
Wingspan: 52—56cm

AGE
Can live up to five years in the wild, rising to 15 years in captivity.

HABITAT & DISTRIBUTION
They live in places where there are plenty of trees so that they can find tree holes to nest in. They often nest in old woodpecker holes.

WHAT THEY EAT
Like most types of starlings they have a mixed diet of fruit, seeds and insects. Insects are especially important for young, growing starlings because of the high protein content.

The Bali starling is one of the rarest birds in the world and relatively new to science being first described in 1912 by Walter Rothschild, from whom the bird gains its specific name.

Bird Facts

Bali starlings are from Bali, an island which is part of Indonesia. They are now found only in one particular forest on the west of the island. Fortunately this is in a protected area, the Bali Barat national park.They usually live in large flocks, although during the breeding season pairs tend to act aggressively towards one another. When courting, behaviour displayed includes shrieking and head bobbing movements.Bali starling’s population has declined rapidly over the past few decades. Falling victim to the illegal trapping for the caged bird trade and industrialisation, these birds have become incredibly close to extinction in the wild – it has been estimated that there are fewer than 50 of them left.